Part - 1 (Unit 1 - 5)
Unit 1: Language to Literature
Check Your Progress
Q. 1. Give brief Answers to the following questions
(a) Name two literacy works familiar to you that do not fall under the category of imaginative writing?
Ans: Jawaharlal Nehru 's Autobiography and Nirad C chaudhury's A passage to England
(b) Name two literary works familiar to you that fall under the category of fiction?
Ans: "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee; and "The Lord of the Rings" by J.R.R. Tolkien
(c) Which of the following titles can be called literature?
i) Gitanjali
(ii) Tom and Jerry
(iii) The Prince and the Pauper
(iv) Basic Journalism
(v) Oxford Guide to English Grammar
(vi) New Hart's Rules
Ans: Title (i) and (ii) are literary works.
Q.2. Give brief Answers to the following questions
(a) What are the two parameters involved in reading a literary text?
Ans: The two parameters involved in reading a literary text are first developing a reasonable reading comprehension ability and secondly, developing a competence towards the engagement with the literary conventions that are being used in the text besides the socio-cultural variables.
(b) In what sense is literature a language event?
Ans: Literature can be called a language event because a literary text is essentially language charged with meaning to the utmost degree.
(c) Why should we be selective of what books to read?
Ans: We should be selective of what books to read because there have been more books than anyone could read. Besides, they have multiplied through the years. Hence, the few books that we read should include the best.
1.9 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q1. Give brief answers :
(a) Compare a simile with a metaphor.
Ans: In simile, comparison between two different things made explicit by using words like as, like etc. While in Metaphor, comparison is implicit and is achieved through a non-literal sense.
(b) What is a transferred epithet?
Ans: An epithet is an adjective that is placed before a noun to qualify it. But in the case of transferred epithet, the adjective is shifted or transferred to another noun associated with it as in “The plowman homewards plods his weary way”. Here the epithet ‘weary’ is transferred from plowman to way.
(c) Name the figure of speech in the line: “Earth has not anything to show more fair”.
Ans: The literary device in the line "Earth has not anything to show more fair" is an example of hyperbole, as it exaggerates the beauty of Earth by suggesting that there is nothing more beautiful than what the speaker is currently witnessing.
(d) “The thirsty earth soaks up the rain” – Name the literary device.
Ans: Personification
Q2. Comment on the lines:
"The fog comes
on little cat feet.
It sits looking
over harbour and city
on silent haunches
and then moves on."
Ans: These lines are from the poem "Fog" by Carl Sandburg, and they paint a vivid picture of the way fog moves and behaves. The poet uses a metaphor to compare the fog to "little cat feet," which is an image that evokes a sense of quietness and stealth. The personification of the fog as a cat that "sits looking" over the city creates a sense of watchfulness and alertness, as if the fog is observing everything with a sense of curiosity. The use of the word "silent" to describe the haunches of the fog-cat reinforces the idea of quietness and stillness. Finally, the last line of the poem - "and then moves on" - suggests that the fog is transient and fleeting, like a passing cat. Overall, these lines create a strong sense of atmosphere and help to bring the scene to life in the reader's mind.
Unit 2: Sementics
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1. Answer the following questions:
(a) State briefly what you understand by the expression: “The connotation of a word”.
Ans: The connotation of a word refers to the idea suggested by a word in addition to its main meaning. For example, the main meaning of mouse is that it is a rodent but the connotative meaning is timidity.
(b) Briefly explain how connotation of a word is different from denotation of a word.
Ans: Denotation is the act of naming something with a word. It is the act of labelling an item. The physical world gives the item, the cognitive world conceives it in terms of an idea and the linguistic world labels it with a name.
Q2. Answer the questions briefly:
(a) Give the componential analysis of the following words: boar, calf, stallion
Ans: boar = + porcine – female + adult
calf = + bovine – adult
(b) Write short notes on: stylistic meaning, thematic meaning.
Ans: Stylistic Meaning:
Stylistic meaning is the meaning conveyed by a word or an expression regarding the socio-cultural background of the users of the language. Stylistic meaning derives from the style in which something is written or spoken and of the relationship between the participants of the spoken or written text. The meaning of a formal, semi-formal or informal utterance is essentially stylistic meaning. For example, the informality associated with the word ‘fag’ for a cigarette is the stylistic meaning of the word.
Thematic Meaning:
Thematic meaning is the meaning conveyed by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message in terms of ordering, focus and emphasis. It is often felt that an utterance in the active voice has a meaning different from that in its corresponding passive voice.
Q3. Answer the following questions:
(a) Give an example of a pair of gradable antonyms by showing their grades.
Ans: hot- cold; gradation: very hot—hot—cool — cold – very cold
(b) Give the hyponyms of the superordinate terms: red and colour.
Ans: red = scarlet, crimson, vermillon
colour = red, orange, blue, etc.
2.10 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q1. Give brief answers to the following:
(a) Give componential analyses of: ox, woman, dog.
Ans: ox = + bovine + female + adult
Woman = + human + female + adult
Dog = + pack + female + adult
(b) Pairs of antonyms like husband-wife are called _____________.
Ans: Relational opposites
(Fill in the blank)
(c) Give the hyponyms of the superordinate term tree.
Ans: Superordinates: Tree
Hyponymy:
Plants
Grass
Oak
Pine
Maple
Birch
Willow
Cherry
Apple
Pear
Palm
Redwood
Sequoia
Q2. Write short notes on:
(a) Gradable antonyms
Ans: Gradable antonyms can be best explained in terms of pairs of words like high-low, wide-narrow, big-small, old-young, and so on. All these words given in italics are adjectives and can be seen in terms of degrees of the quality involved. Thus, one building may be high or very high and one building may be higher than another while relatively, another may be the highest of the three. We have gradation of height, width, size, quality etc. One road may be wide or very wide, another may be wider than the other and another may be the widest of the three. When we refer to something as wide or high, we have a norm of what makes us to say that something is wide or high or big. This accounts for the fact that a small elephant is bigger than the biggest mouse.
(b) Collocation restrictions
Ans: Collocation restrictions refer to the limitations on the combination of certain words with other words in a language. Collocation restrictions arise from the fact that certain words tend to appear together in specific contexts, while other combinations of words are less common or even incorrect.
For example, in English, we say "strong coffee" rather than "powerful coffee" or "mighty coffee" because "strong" is the collocation that is commonly used with "coffee". Similarly, we say "make a decision" rather than "do a decision" or "perform a decision" because "make" is the collocation that is commonly used with "decision".
Collocation restrictions are important in language learning and natural language processing, as they help to ensure that sentences are grammatically correct and meaningful. They also play a role in understanding idiomatic expressions and in accurately translating between languages.
(c) Stylistic meaning
Ans: Stylistic Meaning:
Stylistic meaning is the meaning conveyed by a word or an expression regarding the socio-cultural background of the users of the language. Stylistic meaning derives from the style in which something is written or spoken and of the relationship between the participants of the spoken or written
text. The meaning of a formal, semi-formal or informal utterance is essentially stylistic meaning. For example, the informality associated with the word ‘fag’ for a cigarette is the stylistic meaning of the word.
Q3. Answer the following questions:
(a) Write a note on the sources of meaning.
Ans: In this section we shall look at the different sources of meaning. It is an interesting fact of semantics that the major part of the meaning of words that we use in our speech and writing is partly located in the language (code) that we use and partly in the language user (coder). The sources of meaning located in the language or code that we use include three types of meaning namely, lexical meaning, syntactic meaning and phonological meaning. On the other hand, the sources of meaning located in the language user or coder include socio-cultural meaning.
A) Lexical meaning is derived from the analysis of the components of a word. We call it componential analysis. It is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.
B) Grammatical meaning can be of two types namely: (i) functional relations of their constituents and (ii) the function of a component in the structure of a larger unit as exemplified below:
John called her a fool.
John called her a taxi.
In sentence 1, the grammatical function of her is direct object in the structure S+V+O+O whereas in sentence 2, the grammatical function of her is indirect object (John called a taxi for her). Besides, word-order can reflect different meanings. The function of John in a sentence like ‘John met the minister’ is not the same as in the sentence ‘The minister met John’; there are functional differences.
C) Phonological meaning is the meaning of an utterance derived from the kind of intonation used by a speaker in making the utterance. You will note even from the intonation patterns used in your mother tongue that yes- no type questions are uttered with a rising tone. If an utterance like ‘He came yesterday?’ is uttered with a rising tone, we get the meaning that it is a question.
D) Socio-cultural meaning is the meaning that is derived from the shared knowledge on the use of language, social behaviour, etc. of a speech community sharing the same socio-cultural ethos. For example, when a person on seeing another, makes the utterance “Good morning”, the
utterance may be interpreted as a greeting. We find meanings of such expressions from our socio-cultural situations.
(b) Draw a distinction between conceptual meaning and connotative meaning.
Ans: Conceptual Meaning: The term conceptual meaning, also called denotative meaning is basically the literal meaning of a word indicating the idea or concept to which it refers.
A concept can be described by analysing the different components that constitute the concept. These components can be analysed by making use of three term labels as follows:
1. man = + human – female + adult
2. sow = + porcine + female + adult
3. boy = + human – female – adult
4. cow = + bovine + female + adult
Connotaive meaning: While conceptual meaning is concerned with the core meaning of the word or concept, connotative meaning is the meaning which is attributed to a given word or concept. These attributes come into use over a period of time in a particular culture. They may change with change in time. For example, while the conceptual meaning of bull is that it is + bovine – female + adult, the connotative meaning is that it is a sacred animal. Connotative meaning is not part of what is conceived but what is perceived. The fact that the cow or the bull is a sacred animal is part of the connotative meaning of the word.
(c) Bring out the distinctiveness of homonymy and polysemy with illustrative examples.
Ans: Homonymy is defined as different words with the same form. The word bank meaning ‘a financial institution’ shares the same form of bank to refer to ‘the side of a river’. The word bank meaning financial institution and the word bank meaning the side of a river are two different words because they have different meanings. Dictionaries list them as bank 1 and bank 2.
These two words are homonyms because
- their forms are unrelated in meaning
- their forms are identical
- their forms belong to the same part of speech.
We can draw a distinction between absolute homonymy and partial homonymy. We discussed the two words – bank 1 and bank 2 are absolute homonyms because they share the three characteristics identified above.
Here is another example. The word sole to mean the bottom of the foot or a shoe and the word sole to mean a kind of fish are absolute homonyms because these two words also share the same three characteristics identified above; we call them sole 1 and sole 2. But there are many different kinds of words that belong to the category of partial homonymy. For example, find and found share the same form found, but not finds, finding or founds, founding, etc; and found as a form of ‘find’ is not syntactically equivalent to found as a form of ‘found’.
Unit - 3 : PRAGMATICS
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1. Give brief answers to the following questions:
(a) Give a definition of the term pragmatics.
Ans: Pragmatics can be defined as the field of language study concerning how during a social conversation people experience, make sense of and react to the way meaning is communicated through language use.
(b) State the two parameters that the scope of pragmatics must concern with.
Ans: The scope of pragmatics concerns with two parameters:
Context: Pragmatics is concerned with how meaning is interpreted in context. Context includes the physical, social, and linguistic environment in which a communication takes place. Pragmatics studies how context contributes to meaning, and how knowledge of context helps people interpret utterances.
Speaker intention: Pragmatics is also concerned with speaker intention. It studies how people use language to convey meaning, and how listeners infer meaning from what is said. Speaker intention includes what the speaker intends to communicate, as well as how the speaker intends to convey that meaning (e.g. through sarcasm, irony, etc.).
(c) State the scope of pragmatics in about 50 words.
Ans: The scope of pragmatics is concerned with how language is used in context to convey meaning beyond the literal meaning of words. It studies how context, speaker intention, and other factors contribute to the interpretation of meaning in communication.
Q2. Give brief answers to the following questions:
(a) Explain briefly the term deixis.
Ans: The term ‘deixis’ is drawn from Greek for pointing or indicating something to a listener. It refers to a word or phrase used in communication which directly relates an utterance to a time, place or object. E.g. Look, that is the boy.
(b) State how deixis establishes meaning of an utterance.
Ans: Deixis establishes the meaning of an utterance by decoding a reference given in the form of the 1st and 2nd person pronoun, demonstratives, specific time or place, adverbs, etc. from the context of the situation.
Q3. Answer the following questions:
(a) Briefly explain co-operative principle.
Ans: The term co-operative principle is derived from the work of the philosopher H.P. Grice and now frequently used in pragmatics to refer to conversational strictures. At its simplest, the principle states that speakers try to co-operate with each other when communicating. They will attempt to follow the four maxims of quality, quantity, relevance and manner.
(b) Explain the term maxim of Manner.
Ans: By maxim of Manner, Grice refers to the conversational stricture that requires a speaker to avoid obscurity and ambiguity and to be brief and orderly.
3.11 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q1. Give brief answers to the following questions:
(a) Give a definition of pragmatics.
Ans: The term pragmatics can be defined as a field of language study from the point of view of the user of the language. This use is governed by (a) the choices of language items that a person makes, (b) the constraints that is encountered in using language and (c) the effects the person’s use of language has on the other participants in the act of communication. In brief, pragmatics is the study of language usage in social interaction.
(b) Give the Greek meaning of deixis.
Ans: The term deixis is used to refer to a word or a phrase in communication which directly relates an utterance to a time, place or object. Borrowed from a Greek word, the term is used for pointing or indicating something to a listener. This is done by the use of demonstratives like this, that, these, those, first and second person pronouns I, we, you, tense, specific time and place adverbs like here, there, now, etc. and a variety of other grammatical features tied directly to the utterance.
(c) Give an example of locutionary act.
Ans: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words with a literal meaning. An example of a locutionary act is the sentence "It's raining outside." The words used in this sentence have a clear and literal meaning, conveying the fact that precipitation is falling from the sky.
(d) Give an example of illocutionary act.
Ans: An illocutionary act is the act performed by saying something, beyond the literal meaning of the words. An example of an illocutionary act is the sentence "Can you pass me the salt?" The literal meaning of the sentence is a question about the listener's ability to pass the salt. However, the illocutionary force of the sentence is a request for the listener to actually pass the salt. Therefore, the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is to make a request for the listener to pass the salt.
Q2. Answer the following questions:
(a) Distinguish between semantics and pragmatics.
Ans: There is a difference between the uses of the term meaning in these two fields of study. In semantics, meaning is defined purely as a property of expressions in a given language, in abstraction from particular situations, speakers or hearers. On the other hand, meaning in pragmatics is defined relatively to a speaker or user of the language in a context of a given situation. In other words, semantics is a study of what meaning isPerformatives and constatives are two types of utterances in speech acts theory.
b) Distinguish between performatives and constatives.
Ans: Performatives are utterances that are used to perform an action or bring about a change in the world, simply by being said. They are typically associated with speech acts that are performative in nature, such as promising, ordering, or greeting. Performatives are not just descriptive statements, but they actually do something in the world. For example, the utterance "I promise to be there" is a performative because it brings about a change in the world - a commitment to be present at a certain time.
Constatives, on the other hand, are utterances that are used to describe or state a fact, without necessarily bringing about a change in the world. They are typically associated with speech acts that are constative in nature, such as informing, describing, or reporting. Constatives are essentially descriptive statements, which may be either true or false. For example, the utterance "The sky is blue" is a constative because it is simply describing a fact, rather than performing an action in the world.
In summary, performatives are utterances that perform actions or bring about changes in the world, while constatives are utterances that describe or state facts without necessarily changing the world.
(c) Explain how deixis helps in finding meanings in a conversational act.
Ans: Deixis is a linguistic phenomenon that refers to the use of words that require contextual information to determine their meaning. Deictic expressions include words like "here," "there," "this," "that," "now," "then," and "you." These words have no fixed meaning in themselves but their meaning is determined by the context in which they are used. Understanding deixis is important in finding meanings in a conversational act because it helps us to identify the speaker's intended meaning by taking into account the context of the conversation.
For example, consider the sentence "I will meet you there." Without additional context, the sentence is ambiguous because the meaning of "there" is unclear. However, if the speaker and listener are both standing in a room, and the speaker points to a specific location and says "I will meet you there," then the meaning of "there" becomes clear because it is defined by the context of the pointing gesture.
In this way, deixis helps in finding meanings in a conversational act by providing clues that help us to identify the intended meaning of words and phrases in context. It helps us to interpret language beyond its literal meaning and understand the speaker's intended meaning based on the context of the conversation.
(d) Explain the term ‘discourse marker'.
Ans: A discourse marker is a word or phrase that is used to signal the organization and structure of discourse or conversation. Discourse markers help to connect ideas, show relationships between them, and provide cues to the listener or reader about the speaker's intentions or attitudes.
Discourse markers can be used to indicate a range of functions, such as showing agreement or disagreement, changing the topic, emphasizing a point, or indicating a speaker's stance or attitude towards what is being said. Common examples of discourse markers include words and phrases such as "well," "so," "you know," "basically," "actually," "in fact," and "like."
Discourse markers are important in communication because they help to make language more cohesive and coherent, by signaling the relationships between ideas and providing cues to the listener or reader about the speaker's intentions or attitudes. They also help to manage turn-taking in conversation, by providing cues to the listener about when they can or should speak.
Q3. Answer the following questions:
(a) Discuss the co-operative principles propounded by Grice and state their importance.
Ans: The cooperative principle is a principle of communication proposed by philosopher H.P. Grice. It refers to the idea that people who are communicating with one another are working together to create and interpret meaning, and that this cooperation is based on a set of implicit expectations about how communication should proceed. Grice identified four maxims of the cooperative principle, which are maxim of
Quality: Speakers should be truthful and provide information that is supported by evidence.
Quantity: Speakers should provide the right amount of information - not too little and not too much - and avoid being vague or ambiguous.
Relevance: Speakers should keep their contributions to the conversation relevant to the topic at hand.
Manner: Speakers should be clear, concise, and avoid being obscure or confusing.
(b) Discuss the value of implicature in a conversational act.
Ans: Implicature refers to the meaning that is conveyed indirectly, rather than explicitly stated, in a conversational act. Implicatures arise when speakers use language in creative and nuanced ways to convey meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words they use. These implicatures can be conveyed through the use of tone, context, or other non-linguistic cues.
The value of implicature in a conversational act lies in its ability to convey meaning in a subtle, indirect, and nuanced way. Implicatures can help speakers to communicate more effectively by conveying complex ideas, emotions, or attitudes without having to state them explicitly. This can be especially useful in situations where speakers may want to avoid offending or upsetting their listeners, or where the explicit communication of a message may be inappropriate or unnecessary.
For example, consider the sentence "John is a pretty good tennis player." The explicit meaning of this sentence is simply that John is a good tennis player. However, depending on the context and the tone in which the sentence is said, the implicature could be that John is not an excellent tennis player, or that the speaker is hesitant to endorse John as the best tennis player.
By using implicature, speakers can also convey social and cultural information, such as politeness, respect, or sarcasm. For example, saying "Nice weather we're having today," with a sarcastic tone, can convey the implicature that the weather is actually terrible.
In summary, implicature is valuable in a conversational act because it allows speakers to convey complex meanings in a subtle and nuanced way, and to communicate social and cultural information that may not be explicit in the words they use. It enables more effective and efficient communication, and helps to build stronger and more meaningful relationships between speakers.
(c) Discuss the importance of presuppositions in conversation.
Ans: Presuppositions are assumptions or beliefs that are taken for granted or assumed to be true by the speaker in a conversation. They can be conveyed through language, and often provide important contextual information for interpreting the meaning of a speaker's message.
The importance of presuppositions in conversation lies in their ability to shape the interpretation and understanding of a message. When speakers make presuppositions, they are assuming that their listeners share certain knowledge or beliefs. If the listener does not share these presuppositions, they may misinterpret the speaker's message or fail to fully understand the intended meaning.
Presuppositions also play an important role in creating coherence and understanding in a conversation. By taking shared beliefs or assumptions for granted, speakers can avoid having to explicitly state or argue for them, which can make communication more efficient and effective.
Furthermore, presuppositions can help to shape the relationship between speakers, and can convey information about the speaker's attitudes, beliefs, or intentions. For example, if a speaker presupposes that their listener is knowledgeable about a certain topic, this can convey respect for the listener's intelligence and expertise.
However, it is important to note that presuppositions can also be used in manipulative or deceptive ways in conversation. For example, a speaker may make a false presupposition in order to manipulate the listener's beliefs or emotions.
In conclusion, presuppositions are an important aspect of conversation, as they provide contextual information and shape the interpretation and understanding of a speaker's message. They can help to create coherence and efficiency in communication, and convey important social and emotional information. However, it is important for speakers to be aware of the potential for manipulation or deception when making presuppositions in conversation.
UNIT 4: TEXT AND DISCOURSE
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1. Answer the following questions:
(a) What do you mean by the hierarchical structure of a sentence?
Ans: A sentence can be analysed in terms of its hierarchical structure. In this approach a five-rank hierarchy is used. The ranks are: sentence – clause – phrase – word – morpheme. According to this description, morphemes are units smaller than the word.
(b) Briefly draw a distinction between text and discourse.
Ans: A text is a semantic unit which is realized in sentences. A text is to the semantic system what a clause is to the grammatical system. We can call it a communicatve occurrence that meets several standards of textuality notably cohesion, coherence, clarity, correctness, etc. It is different from discourse in the sense that a discourse is a process while a text is a product of language activity. Discourse is what obtains in the mind of the participants of a discourse. The relationship between the participants of a discourse can also enable them to modify and organize their discourse in terms of formality, semi-formality and informality in the use of language.
(c) How is grammar related to discourse?
Ans: Grammar is related to discourse in an interesting way. Both are connected with the language structures. But whereas grammar is concerned with the structure of sentences by taking the sentence as the largest unit of grammatical description, discourse is concerned with the structure of units larger than the sentence.
Q2. The following is a piece of text that lacks cohesion and coherence. Rewrite it in proper order. No one could remember when the monsoon had been so late. And the summer was longer. It was hotter than usual and drier and dustier. Even the weather had a different feel in India that year. For weeks the sparse clouds cast only shadows. There was no rain. The summer of 1947 was not like other Indian summers.
Ans: The summer of 1947 was not like other Indian summers. Even the weather had a different feel in India that year. It was hotter than usual, and drier and dustier. And the summer was longer. No one could remember when the monsoon had been so late. For weeks, the sparse clouds cast only shadows. There was no rain.
Q3. (a) Write a paragraph on “A scene in an
examination hall”.
Ans: As I walked into the examination hall, the atmosphere was tense and quiet. The only sounds were the shuffling of paper and the occasional cough from a nervous student. Rows of desks and chairs were neatly arranged, each one occupied by a student with a focused expression on their face. The invigilator stood at the front of the room, watching over the students with a stern expression. The only source of light came from the dimly lit bulbs hanging from the ceiling, casting a dull glow over the room. I took my seat, my heart beating faster with every passing moment. I could feel the weight of the exam paper in my hands, and I knew that the next few hours would be critical. As I started to read the questions, I took a deep breath and tried to focus on the task at hand. The silence was deafening, broken only by the scratching of pens and the turning of pages. In that moment, the world outside the examination hall ceased to exist, and I was completely consumed by the challenge in front of me.
(b) Write an essay on a book that you have read.
Ans: Midnight's Children is a novel written by Salman Rushdie that was first published in 1981. Set in India, the story follows the life of Saleem Sinai, who was born at the stroke of midnight on August 15, 1947, the same moment that India gained its independence from British colonial rule. The novel is a masterpiece of postcolonial literature, blending magical realism with historical events to explore themes of identity, history, memory, and nationhood.
The novel's narrative is structured around Saleem's personal history, as well as the larger historical events that are unfolding in India at the time. Rushdie uses magical realism to create a surreal and dreamlike atmosphere, adding a layer of depth and complexity to the story. The novel also explores the impact of colonialism on India and the struggle for national identity and independence.
Throughout the novel, Saleem grapples with his own sense of identity and belonging, mirroring the larger issues facing postcolonial India. His mixed heritage, as well as his supernatural abilities, make him an outsider in his own country. Midnight's Children is a poignant and thought-provoking exploration of the human experience, and its themes are just as relevant today as they were when the novel was first published over 40 years ago.
4.9 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q1. Give brief answers to the following questions:
(a) Explain the two interesting positions that a sentence occupies in the study of text and discourse.
Ans: In the study of text and discourse, a sentence can be analyzed from two interesting positions: as a standalone unit or as part of a larger discourse.
When analyzed as a standalone unit, a sentence can reveal its inherent structure, grammar, syntax, and meaning. This approach is useful in analyzing the construction of language and identifying the relationships between words and phrases. It is often used in the study of linguistics, where sentences are analyzed to understand the rules that govern language.
However, when a sentence is analyzed as part of a larger discourse, it takes on a new meaning. The context in which the sentence is used can significantly influence its meaning, and the sentence may be interpreted differently depending on the discourse in which it appears. This approach is useful in analyzing the use of language in communication and understanding how language is used to convey meaning beyond its literal interpretation. It is often used in the study of discourse analysis, where sentences are analyzed in their broader communicative context.
By considering a sentence from both positions, we can gain a deeper understanding of its structure, meaning, and context. This approach is valuable in understanding the role of language in communication and how it can be used to convey complex ideas and concepts.
(b) Explain how sentence boundaries are identified in speech.
Ans: Sentence boundaries in speech are identified through various cues such as intonation, pause, and stress patterns. These cues help listeners to recognize the end of one sentence and the beginning of another.
Intonation refers to the rise and fall of pitch in speech. At the end of a sentence, the pitch tends to fall, indicating the completion of a thought. In contrast, at the beginning of a new sentence, the pitch tends to rise, indicating the start of a new thought.
Pauses also play a crucial role in identifying sentence boundaries. A brief pause at the end of a sentence indicates the completion of a thought, whereas a longer pause may indicate the end of a paragraph or a change in topic.
Stress patterns can also provide cues for identifying sentence boundaries. In English, the stress pattern tends to be heavier at the end of a sentence, indicating that it is the final word in a thought.
Other factors that can help identify sentence boundaries include the use of conjunctions such as "and" or "but," which can indicate the start of a new sentence, and the use of pronouns, which can indicate the continuation of a previous sentence.
Overall, the identification of sentence boundaries in speech relies on a combination of cues, including intonation, pause, stress patterns, and other linguistic features. These cues help listeners to follow the flow of speech and understand the organization of ideas in discourse.
(c) Discuss overt connectives with suitable examples.
Ans: Overt connectives are words or phrases that explicitly signal the relationship between two clauses or sentences in a discourse. They help to indicate the direction of the argument and provide a clear and concise indication of how the ideas in a text are related to each other. Here are some examples of overt connectives with suitable examples:
Conjunctions: Conjunctions are words that connect two or more words, phrases, or clauses. Examples include "and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," and "yet." For example: "I wanted to go to the beach, but it was raining."
Adverbials: Adverbials are words or phrases that provide additional information about the time, place, manner, or reason of an action or event. Examples include "meanwhile," "therefore," "however," "likewise," and "in contrast." For example: "She was tired; nevertheless, she kept going."
Prepositions: Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence. Examples include "in," "on," "at," "with," and "to." For example: "He went to the store with his friends."
Pronouns: Pronouns are words that take the place of a noun in a sentence. Examples include "it," "they," "who," and "which." For example: "The cat chased the mouse, which ran away."
Overt connectives can help to make the relationships between ideas in a text clearer and more concise. They also help to make the text more readable and easier to follow, particularly in longer and more complex texts.
(d) Give an example of covert connective.
Ans: "John was so excited about his new job he could hardly sleep. The next day he woke up early and got dressed in his best suit."
In this example, the second sentence "The next day he woke up early and got dressed in his best suit" is connected to the first sentence "John was so excited about his new job he could hardly sleep" through the implied causality of the context. The reader can infer that John woke up early and got dressed in his best suit because he was excited about his new job. The connection between the two sentences is not explicitly stated but rather implied through the context of the story. This is an example of a covert connective, where the relationship between the two sentences is suggested rather than directly signaled by an overt connective.
Q2. Answer the following questions:
(a) State the hierarchy of the sentence structure.
Ans: It is useful to begin with the concept of the sentence for the simple reason that the sentence occupies two interesting positions in text and discourse. On the one hand, it is the largest unit of grammatical description while, on the other, it is referred to as the minimal unit of language activity. As the largest structural unit in terms of which the grammar of a language is organized, a classification on the sentence can focus on two areas of activity – its structure and its functions. Approaches to structure proceed along many different lines, the most common one for pedagogical purpose being identification of a hierarchy of its elements in terms of morpheme—word – phrase – clause – sentence.
(b) Explain the term cohesion.
Ans: A piece of text is characterized by a cohesiveness or unity between the sentences. Cohesion is the relation of meaning that exists within and between the sentences which creates a text. We discover that a good piece of composition is marked by certain cohesive links or devices that can be either explicit or implicit. Explicit cohesive devices are also called overt connectives whereas implicit cohesive devices are called covert connectives.
Overt connectives often play the role of linkers in a piece of text. They are specific devices in writing whose main objective in a piece of composition is to ensure a smooth transition. They can be single words or group of words each performing certain definite function in the composition.
(c) Explain the structure of a paragraph
Ans: The structure of a paragraph can be a good starting point to discuss units of composition beyond the sentence. Just as a sentence can be discussed in terms of its structure, we can talk of different layers of structure while discussing a discourse. For example, we can discuss a paragraph in terms of these features: (a) a central controlling idea; (b) adequate development of the idea; and (c) coherent connections between parts of the paragraph. Here is a paragraph from a work of fiction:
It was Monday morning. Swaminathan was reluctant to open his eyes. He considered Monday specially unpleasant in the calendar. After the delicious freedom of Saturday and Sunday, it was difficult to get into the Monday mood of work and discipline. He shuddered at the very thought of school: that dismal yellow building; the fire-eyed Vedanayagam, his class- teacher; and the headmaster with his thin long cane.
The central controlling idea of the paragraph is that it was a Monday morning and Swaminathan was reluctant to open his eyes. The idea as to his reluctance to open his eyes is adequately developed all through the paragraph with the author pointing to several reasons why he detests Monday mornings – the delicious freedom of Saturday and Sunday and his bitterness towards his school. There are coherent connections between the parts of the paragraph guiding us smoothly from one sentence to the next.
Q3. Answer the following essay-type questions:
(a) Distinguish between text and discourse.
Ans: Text and discourse are two related but distinct concepts in linguistics. Text refers to a written or spoken piece of language that is coherent and self-contained, with a beginning, middle, and end. Text can be thought of as a unit of language that is complete in itself and can be analyzed in terms of its grammatical structure, meaning, and communicative purpose.
Discourse, on the other hand, refers to the use of language in a social context, where speakers or writers use language to communicate with each other and to achieve specific goals. Discourse is not just a collection of texts but also includes the social practices and processes that govern how language is used in different contexts, including the roles and identities of speakers, the power relations between them, and the cultural norms and values that shape communication.
In summary, text refers to a single, self-contained unit of language, while discourse refers to the social context in which language is used and the communicative practices and processes that govern it. While text can be analyzed in terms of its grammatical structure, meaning, and communicative purpose, discourse analysis focuses on the larger social context and the broader social, cultural, and ideological factors that shape communication.
(b) Discuss two distinct features of a text.
Ans: One distinct feature of a text is its structure. The way in which a text is organized can greatly affect its readability and effectiveness in conveying information. Texts can be structured in a variety of ways, such as chronologically, thematically, or through cause-and-effect relationships. For example, a news article may be structured with the most important information at the beginning and supporting details following in order of decreasing importance, while a narrative might be structured with a clear beginning, middle, and end. The structure of a text can also include elements like headings, subheadings, and bullet points, which help to break up the text and make it easier to read and understand.
Another distinct feature of a text is its tone. The tone of a text refers to the attitude or emotion conveyed by the author or speaker towards the subject matter or audience. Tone can be serious, humorous, formal, informal, sarcastic, empathetic, or any other range of emotions. The tone of a text can greatly influence how it is perceived by the reader or listener. For example, a persuasive essay might use a tone of urgency or passion to try to convince the reader of the writer's argument, while a news article might use a more neutral, informative tone to present facts objectively. The tone of a text can also be conveyed through word choice, sentence structure, and other stylistic devices.
(c) Discuss the features of discourse.
Ans: Discourse refers to a type of communication that goes beyond individual sentences or utterances and instead focuses on larger, more complex patterns of meaning that emerge from multiple sentences or utterances. Some features of discourse include:
Coherence: Coherence refers to the degree to which a discourse is clear, logical, and connected. A coherent discourse will have a clear structure that makes it easy for the listener or reader to follow the main points and understand the relationships between them. Coherence can be achieved through the use of transitional words and phrases, consistent use of verb tenses and pronouns, and clear topic sentences.
Cohesion: Cohesion refers to the linguistic features that connect individual sentences or utterances together to form a cohesive discourse. Cohesive devices can include pronouns, conjunctions, and transitional words, as well as lexical items that repeat across sentences (such as synonyms or antonyms). Cohesion helps to create a sense of unity and continuity throughout the discourse.
Genre: Discourse can be classified into different genres, each of which has its own set of conventions and expectations. For example, academic discourse will typically have a more formal tone and use specialized vocabulary, while conversational discourse will be more informal and may include slang or other colloquial language. Understanding the genre of a discourse can help the reader or listener to interpret the meaning and intent behind the language used.
Intertextuality: Intertextuality refers to the way in which a discourse is influenced by other texts or cultural artifacts. A discourse may reference other texts, such as literature or popular media, or draw on shared cultural knowledge or experiences. Intertextuality can help to create layers of meaning within a discourse and make it more engaging for the reader or listener.
Power and ideology: Discourse can be used to reinforce or challenge power structures and ideological beliefs. For example, a political discourse might use language that reinforces the authority of those in power, or it might use language that challenges their legitimacy. Understanding the power dynamics and ideological assumptions that underlie a discourse can help the reader or listener to evaluate its claims and arguments more critically.
UNIT 5: APPLIED LINGUISTICS
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1. Answer the following questions briefly:
(a) Define the term applied linguistics.
Ans: Applied linguistics may be defined as the field of study involving the application of the concepts, principles and theories of linguistics to other related fields of study. It tries to offer solutions to real-world problems in which language is a central issue.
(b) State briefly why applied linguistics is considered inter-disciplinary.
Ans: Applied linguistics is considered inter-disciplinary because of its relationship with several other disciplines notably sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, general linguistics, clinical linguistics (speech therapy), stylistics, discourse analysis, lexicography and so on.
(c) Briefly list the areas of ELT.
Ans: The areas of ELT include learners’ need-analysis, syllabus designing, development of textbooks and instructional materials (print and electronic, visual and audio-visual), designing different kinds of tests and remedial teaching materials based on learners’ errors.
Q2. Fill up the blanks:
(a) L1 learning is an _____________ process.
Ans: unconscious
(b) Every normal child has an _______________ language learning faculty.
Ans: innate
(c) L1 children acquire their language by being _____________ to it.
Ans: exposed
(d) Based on their exposure to their language, learners ____________ a grammar of the language.
Ans: invent
(e) Repetition and practice constitute the main strategies of the_____________ theory of learning.
Ans: behavourist
Q3. Answer the following questions:
(a) What is contrasted in contrastive analysis?
Ans: The linguistic features of the learners’ L1 and L2 are contrasted.
(b) Explain the term L1 interference.
Ans: The effect of one language on the learning of another is referred to as interference. The difficulties faced by learners due to the effect of their L1 while learning the L2 is known by the term L1 interference.
(c) Explain the terms bilingual and bilingualism.
Ans: Bilingual refers to a person who knows or uses two languages. Bilingualism is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or a community of speakers.
(d) Explain the terms multilingual and multilingualism
Ans: Multilingual refers to a person who knows and uses three or more languages. Multilingualism is the use of three or more languages by an individual or a language community.
Q4. Write short notes on:
(a) Overgeneralization
Ans: Overgeneralization: The term covers instances where the learner makes errors on the basis of their experience of other structures in the L2. For example *We are walk to school every day is basically an error in the use of the verb form. The error is the result of a tendency to over-generalize the rules of grammar. Over-generalization generally involves the creation of one unacceptable sentence due to the false generalization of the grammatical input that the learner had acquired.
(b) Ignorance to rule restriction
Ans: Ignorance of rule restriction: The term covers instances where the learner fails to observe the restrictions of application of rules of grammar to contexts where they do not apply. For example:
- From We talked about it, in the analogy he produces *We discussed about it.
- From He said to me, he produces *He told to me.
- From Ask him to do it, he produces *Make him to do it.
(c) Incomplete application of rules
Ans: Incomplete application of rules: Under this category we may note the occurrence of structures which show that the learner is in the process of acquiring acceptable forms. For example, earner has acquired the statement form which he uses wrongly in the question form by producing sentences like
- *When you are coming?
- *Why you are late?
5.10 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q1. Give brief answers to the following questions:
(a) Explain the word applied in the term “applied linguistics”.
Ans: In the term "applied linguistics," the word "applied" refers to the practical application of linguistic knowledge to real-world situations.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, including its structure, use, and acquisition. Applied linguistics takes this theoretical knowledge and uses it to solve real-world problems related to language use and learning.
Applied linguistics encompasses a wide range of fields, including language teaching, language policy and planning, language assessment, language disorders, and translation and interpretation. In each of these areas, linguists apply their knowledge to solve practical problems and improve the way language is used and learned.
So, in summary, "applied" in "applied linguistics" refers to the practical use of linguistic knowledge to solve real-world language problems.
(b) State the areas of concern of sociolinguistics.
Ans: Sociolinguistics is a field of study that examines the relationship between language and society. The areas of concern in sociolinguistics include:
Language variation: Sociolinguists investigate the way that language varies according to social, cultural, and regional factors. This includes variation in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
Language attitudes: Sociolinguists study the way that people perceive and evaluate different languages and dialects. This includes attitudes towards different accents and dialects, as well as attitudes towards bilingualism and multilingualism.
Language contact: Sociolinguists examine the way that languages come into contact with each other, and how this contact affects language use and language change. This includes issues of language borrowing, code-switching, and language shift.
Language and identity: Sociolinguists explore the way that language is used to express and construct social identities, including ethnicity, gender, and social class.
Language policy: Sociolinguists investigate the way that language policies are developed and implemented at the local, national, and international levels. This includes issues of language education, language planning, and language rights.
(c) State the areas of concern of ELT.
Ans: ELT, or English Language Teaching, refers to the field of teaching and learning English as a second or foreign language. The areas of concern in ELT include:
Language skills: ELT focuses on the development of the four main language skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Teachers aim to help learners improve their communication skills in English in both oral and written forms.
Language systems: ELT also deals with the underlying systems of language, including grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and discourse. Teachers aim to help learners understand and use these systems effectively to communicate in English.
Language acquisition: ELT addresses the process of language acquisition, including how learners acquire new vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as how they develop their language skills through exposure and practice.
Language assessment: ELT also involves assessing learners' language proficiency, both for diagnostic purposes and to track progress over time. Assessment tools can include tests, quizzes, essays, and other assignments.
Cultural competence: ELT also emphasizes the importance of cultural competence, helping learners to understand the cultural context in which English is used and to navigate cultural differences in communication.
Pedagogical approaches: ELT encompasses a range of pedagogical approaches and methodologies, including communicative language teaching, task-based language teaching, and content-based instruction, among others. Teachers may adapt their approach to the needs of their learners and the context in which they are teaching.
(d) Define the term errors.
Ans: In language learning and linguistics, an error refers to a mistake or deviation from the norms of a language, whether in speech or writing. Errors can be made by learners at any level of language proficiency, and they may result from a variety of factors, including incomplete or inaccurate knowledge of the language's rules, interference from the learner's first language, or simply the difficulty of the task or context in which the language is being used.
Q2. Answer the following questions:
(a) Discuss the scope of applied linguistics.
Ans: Applied linguistics is a broad field that encompasses the study of language in a wide range of contexts, with the aim of applying this knowledge to real-world problems and situations. The scope of applied linguistics is constantly expanding as new language-related challenges arise, and it encompasses a variety of subfields and areas of focus, including:
Language teaching and learning: Applied linguists study how people learn and teach second and foreign languages, as well as the development and use of teaching materials and methods.
Language acquisition: Applied linguists investigate how learners acquire language, including factors such as age, cognitive abilities, motivation, and social context.
Language assessment: Applied linguists design and evaluate language tests and assessments, including proficiency exams, placement tests, and diagnostic tests.
Sociolinguistics: Applied linguists explore the relationship between language and society, including issues of language variation, language use, and language policy.
Discourse analysis: Applied linguists examine the structure and use of language in specific contexts, including written and spoken discourse in various settings.
Corpus linguistics: Applied linguists use computer-based methods to analyze large collections of language data, known as corpora, to study language patterns and usage.
Forensic linguistics: Applied linguists apply their expertise to legal and forensic contexts, such as analyzing language evidence in criminal investigations or providing expert testimony in court.
Computational linguistics: Applied linguists use computational methods and tools to study language, including natural language processing, machine translation, and text analysis.
Language policy and planning: Applied linguists advise governments and other organizations on language policies and planning, including issues related to language education, multilingualism, and language rights.
(b) Discuss the term “pull of the mother tongue”.
Ans: The term "pull of the mother tongue" refers to the psychological and emotional attachment individuals feel towards their first language, which is often the language spoken by their mother. This attachment is powerful and can have a significant impact on a person's language use and acquisition.
One of the primary ways in which the pull of the mother tongue manifests is in the tendency for individuals to prefer speaking and communicating in their first language, even when they are fluent in another language. This preference can be especially strong in social and cultural contexts where the mother tongue is widely spoken, such as within a person's family or community.
Another way in which the pull of the mother tongue can be observed is in the challenges individuals may face when learning a new language. For example, a person may struggle to learn and remember new vocabulary words or grammar rules because their brain is wired to process information in their first language.
Furthermore, the pull of the mother tongue can be a source of identity and pride for individuals who associate their first language with their culture and heritage. At the same time, it can also be a source of conflict and discrimination, particularly in contexts where individuals who do not speak the dominant language are marginalized or discriminated against.
Overall, the pull of the mother tongue is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that can have both positive and negative implications for individuals and society as a whole. Understanding and addressing this phenomenon is essential for promoting effective language learning and for fostering inclusive and equitable societies.
(c) Discuss the criticism against contrastive analysis.
Ans: Contrastive analysis is a linguistic approach that compares the differences and similarities between two or more languages, with the aim of predicting the difficulties that learners of one language might have when learning the other. While this approach was widely used in language teaching and learning during the mid-twentieth century, it has since been criticized on several grounds, including:
Oversimplification of language: Contrastive analysis assumes that languages can be easily compared and contrasted, and that the differences and similarities between them are clear and straightforward. However, language is complex and multifaceted, and the differences between languages are often nuanced and difficult to generalize.
Neglect of individual differences: Contrastive analysis assumes that all learners of a particular language will encounter the same difficulties when learning another language. However, learners have different backgrounds, experiences, and learning styles, and may therefore encounter different challenges when learning a new language.
Overemphasis on form: Contrastive analysis tends to focus on the surface-level structures of language, such as grammar and vocabulary, rather than on the underlying meaning and use of language. This can lead to a narrow and overly technical approach to language teaching and learning.
Limited predictive power: Contrastive analysis assumes that the difficulties that learners will encounter when learning a new language can be predicted based on the differences and similarities between the two languages. However, this approach has limited predictive power, as the difficulties that learners encounter are often influenced by a wide range of factors, including context, motivation, and individual learning strategies.
Failure to account for language change: Contrastive analysis assumes that languages are static and unchanging, and that the differences and similarities between them will remain constant over time. However, language is constantly evolving and changing, and the relationships between languages are therefore dynamic and complex.
In summary, while contrastive analysis was once a popular approach to language teaching and learning, it has since been criticized for oversimplifying language, neglecting individual differences, overemphasizing form, having limited predictive power, and failing to account for language change.
(d) Discuss the methodology of error analysis.
Ans: Error analysis is a methodology used in linguistics, language learning, and language teaching to identify and analyze errors made by learners in their use of a language. The purpose of error analysis is to better understand the nature of the errors that learners make, the underlying reasons for the errors, and how to address them.
The methodology of error analysis typically involves the following steps:
Collecting a sample of learner language: This involves gathering a representative sample of the learner's spoken or written language. The sample should be large enough to provide sufficient data for analysis but not so large that it becomes unmanageable.
Identifying errors: The next step is to identify errors in the learner's language. Errors can include incorrect grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, or discourse organization. It is important to distinguish between errors that are systematic and those that are random or occasional.
Categorizing errors: Once errors have been identified, they need to be classified into categories based on their nature and underlying causes. Categories can include grammatical errors, lexical errors, pronunciation errors, and discourse errors.
Analyzing errors: The next step is to analyze the errors in more detail to identify the underlying reasons for them. This may involve considering the context in which the errors occur, the learner's first language, their level of proficiency, and the type of task they are performing.
Evaluating errors: The final step is to evaluate the errors and consider how they can be addressed. This may involve providing corrective feedback to the learner, designing language learning activities that target specific areas of difficulty, or revising teaching materials to better address common errors.
Overall, the methodology of error analysis is a valuable tool for language teachers and researchers to better understand the difficulties that learners face when acquiring a new language. By identifying and analyzing errors, it is possible to develop more effective language teaching strategies and materials that can help learners improve their proficiency.
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